Inhibition of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) is one of the most powerful maneuvers to slow progression of renal disease. Angiotensin II (AngII) has emerged in the past decade as a multifunctional cytokine that exhibits many nonhemodynamic properties, such as acting as a growth factor and profibrogenic cytokine, and even having proinflammatory properties. Many of these deleterious functions are mediated by other factors, such as TGF-␤ and chemoattractants that are induced in the

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... kidney by AngII. Moreover, understanding of the RAAS has become much more complex in recent years with the identification of novel peptides (e.g., AngIV) that could bind to specific receptors, elucidating deleterious effects, and non-angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)-mediated generation of AngII. The ability of renal cells to produce AngII in a concentration that is much higher than what is found in the systemic circulation and the observation that aldosterone may be engaged directly in profibrogenic processes independent of hypertension have added to the complexity of the RAAS. Even renin has now been identified to have a "life on its own" and mediates profibrotic effects via binding to specific receptors. Finally, drugs that are used to block the RAAS, such as ACE inhibitors or certain AngII type 1 receptor antagonists, may have properties on cells independent of AngII (ACE inhibitor-mediated outside-inside signaling and peroxisome proliferatoractivated receptor-␥ stimulatory effects of certain sartanes). Although blockade of the RAAS with ACE inhibitors, AngII type 1 receptor antagonists, or the combination of both should be part of every strategy to slow progression of renal disease, a better understanding of the novel aspects of the RAAS should contribute to the development of innovative strategies not only to completely halt progression but also to induce regression of human renal disease.