The geometrical-optics expansion reduces the problem of solving wave equations to one of solving transport equations along rays. Here we consider scalar, electromagnetic and gravitational waves propagating on a curved spacetime in general relativity. We show that each is governed by a wave equation with the same principal part. It follows that: each wave propagates at the speed of light along rays (null generators of hypersurfaces of constant phase); the square of the wave amplitude varies in

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... verse proportion to the cross section of the beam; and the polarization is parallel-propagated along the ray (the Skrotskii/Rytov effect). We show that the optical scalars for a beam, and various Newman-Penrose scalars describing a parallel-propagated null tetrad, can be found by solving transport equations in a second-order formulation. Unlike the Sachs equations, this formulation makes it straightforward to find such scalars beyond the first conjugate point of a congruence, where neighbouring rays cross, and the scalars diverge. We discuss differential precession across the beam which leads to a modified phase in the geometrical-optics expansion.