With recent advances in instrumentation and experimental methodology, noncontact atomic force microscopy is now being frequently used to measure the atomic-scale interactions acting between a sharp probe tip and surfaces of interest as a function of three spatial dimensions, via the method of three-dimensional atomic force microscopy (3D-AFM). In this chapter, we discuss the different data collection and processing approaches taken towards this goal while highlighting the associated advantages

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... nd disadvantages in terms of correct interpretation of results. Additionally, common sources of artifacts in 3D-AFM measurements, including thermal drift, piezo nonlinearities, and tip-related issues such as asymmetry and elasticity are considered. Finally, the combination of 3D-AFM with simultaneous scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) is illustrated on surface-oxidized Cu(100). We conclude the chapter by an outlook regarding the future development of the 3D-AFM method.