Terrorism and the term 'jihadism' have become a global phenomenon, a product of modernity and globalization which shows no sign of abating. The number of radicalized young people in Western and non-Western countries who are willing to travel overseas in the cause of jihad and violent extremism has increased significantly since 9/11. In the 20 years since the largely driven U.S. counter-terrorism efforts began in response, jihadism in force and numbers has risen at least by fourfold in terms of

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... he numbers of Sunni jihadist fighters in the field from the Middle East to North Africa, Afghanistan and beyond according to the Center for Strategic and International Studies in 2018 (https:// www.csis.org/analysis/evolution-salafi-jihadist-threat). However we look at it as social scientists, policy makers or interested observers, it represents a failure to some extent of state and society to deal with the global threat of violent extremism at any level, involving any religion, ethnicity or ideological forms which seek to change the political and social order.