Joann Loehr, Richard Tocher and Pavel Smejtek who provided many helpful discussions, suggestions, constructive criticism, continuo~s encouragement, and assistance during the course of this research as well as the review and organization of the drafts of this dissertation. I would like to than« Helmer COlonia-Roque for his assistance in several copper bioassay experiments. I am grateful to Al Levinson who provided equipment and laboratory facilities for the culturing of algae in carboy quantities.