Northern Syria of the Middle Bronze Age, as known chiefly from the archives of Mari and Alalah VII, slowly graduated from moments of relative chaos (ca. 2I00-I850) to an age of political stability (ca. I850-I625). Under the able leadership of the Yamhadian dynasty, a feudal system of relationship created one entity out of the whole region.') The evidence at our disposal allows us even to imagine a political and economic Pax Yamhadiana which, beginning before the fall of Mari, lasted until the

more »

... se of the Hittite State and the attacks of Hattusilis I (ca. 625). *) The word 'sketch' in the title is chosen for reasons of necessity. Except for brief illuminations from the 'Cappadocian' texts and those from Egypt, heavy reliance had to be placed on the Mari and Alalah VII documents, and then only when they show evidence of foreign interconnection. The archaeology of Middle Bronze (IIa) Syria, in which the Mari age unfolds, has not been very helpful, simply because not enough North Syrian sites of that age have been excavated. The reports from the 'Amuq region (phase L), 'Atsanah (levels XVI-VIII), testify to a widespread use of a painted ware rounded of form, narrow necked, buff, with simple geometric designs (cross-hatching in triangles) within bands (cf. Iraq, I5 (I953), 57-65; Chronologies in Old World Archaeology, p. I72). The material from Ugarit of that age being yet mostly unpublished, one looks forward to the reports of excavation at Tilmen-Hiiyik, which is probably the site of ancient Ibla (for now, see Orientalia 33 (1964) 503-507; AJA 68 (1964), I55-56; 70 (966), I47). There, some ten kilometers southeast of Zingirli, level IIIa-c seems to correspond to Mari of the Yahdun-Lim dynasty. The chronology adopted is that employed in the second edition of the Cambridge Ancient History. This study benefitted from the comments of Professors Michael C. Astour and William W. Hallo. Professor Harry A. Hoffner, Jr., has also been most helpful. i) For the political history of Northern Syria during the Middle Bronze Age, see Horst Klengel, Geschichte Syriens im 2.Jahrtausend v.u.z., I (= Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin: Institutfiir Orientforschung. No. 40), 1965, chap. 4, 7, 8, I4-16; J. R. Kupper, "Northern Mesopotamia and Syria," CAH2, II: I (I963), with an excellent bibliography. In order not to elongate this study, a number of secondary materials cited there will not be repeated. JESHO, IX II JACK M. SASSON In general, it was also an era in which West Semitic families successfully dominated the Fertile Crescent from Sat-el-'Arab to the valley of the Nile. In the East, the dynasty of Hammurapi was to remain secure as ruler of Sumer and Akkad; its pre-eminence shattered only by Mursilis' raid upon the capital, Babylon (ca. x595). To the West, the Hyksos began to infiltrate Palestine and Egypt, achieving complete control over the Eastern Delta by 1720.1) As they peaceably brought into Egypt the same ethnic element as was present in Northernmost Syria of the eighteenth century,2) new waves of Hurrians slowly entered from the east, possibly trickling even from the west,3) and filled the vacuum. The latter were to become revitalized when, a century later, Indo-European groups forged a strong new state, Mitanni, in North Mesopotamia east of the Euphrates. As the peace was enforced by a strong Yamhad, North Syria traded with its neighbors, taking full advantage of its geographical situation.4) Flanked by the Mediterranean on the west, the Euphrates on the east, and bounded to the north by Asia Minor, to the southeast by Mesopotamia, North Syria offered its output to the other lands. In addition, it was in a position to effect the interchange of products among Crete, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Anatolia. To be sure, the fall of the Ur III dynasty brought about radical changes in the method and orientation of Mesopotamian trade. The I) W. C. Hayes, "Egypt to the End of the Twentieth Dynasty, Chronology," CAH2, I, 4, p. 13 ff.; idem, CAH2, II, 2, I8 ff. 2) But cf. Helck's treatment of the situation in his Befiehungen, chap. XIII (with appropriate bibliography). He prefers to see in the early Hyksos a wave composed of Hurrian infiltrators. Save-S6derbergh had, before the publication of Helck's work, published an article in which he challenged the then widespread assumption that the Delta was invaded by Hurrians. "The Hyksos Rule in Egypt,"JEA, 37 (195 I), pp. 5 3-71, can still be considered as a good defense against Helck's arguments.