Livestock production is a key income source in eastern Africa, and 80% of 22 the total agricultural land is used for livestock herding. Hence, ecological and 23 socio-economically sustainable rangeland management is crucial. Our study aimed at 24 selecting operational economic, environmental and social sustainability indicators for three 25 main pastoral (P), agro-pastoral (AP), and landless intensive (LI) small scale livestock 26 production systems for use in sustainability assessment in

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... ia. Quantitative and 27 qualitative data were collected through grey literature and semi-structured interviews, 28 assessing livestock and feed resources, production technology, land tenure, financial and 29 gender issues. Our results suggested that feed shortages (FS) are directly related to grazing 30 pressure (G) and inversely related to grass recovery rates (R). According to our indicators, 31 AP was the most sustainable while P and LI were only conditionally sustainable production 32 systems. 93% of 82 interviewees claimed that private land ownership was the best land 33 tenure incentive for efficient rangeland management. Farmers perceived Prosopis juliflora 34 expansion, sporadic rainfall, and disease infestation as the most significant causes for 35 decreasing livestock productivity. Landless intensive farmers had the highest equality in 36 income distribution (Gini Index: GI = 0.4), followed by P and AP (each with a GI = 0.5). 37 Neither educational background nor income seemed to determine grazing species 38 OPEN ACCESS Land 2013, 2 727 conservation efforts. We claimed that sustainability indicators are valuable tools to 39 highlight shortcomings and strengths of the three main livestock production systems and 40 help with future livestock management in Ethiopia. Selecting suitable indicators, however, 41 is crucial as data requirements and availability can vary across livestock systems. 42