There is an ongoing debate about whether the cause of dyslexia (reading problems) is based on linguistic, auditory, or visual timing deficits. Objectives: This review of the relevant research provides substantial evidence that visual movement-discrimination can be used to detect and remediate reading problems in all types of dyslexia. What emerges from multiple studies is the essential role for dorsal stream function in facilitating reading fluency, selective and sustained attention, and

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... memory in both dyslexic and typically developing students between the ages of 6-8 years old. Methods: Specifically, training visual dorsal stream function on discriminating the direction of a dim test pattern (< 2% contrast) moving relative to a stationary textured background pattern is the key to facilitate reading acquisition in dyslexics and those at risk for reading problems. Results: Visual movement-discrimination training improves reading, attention, and working memory through the hypothetical increase in temporal precision and neuronal sensitivity of magnocellular neurons relative to linked parvocellular neurons in the dorsal stream. Conclusions: This research shows that visual movement figure/ground discrimination can be used not only to diagnose all types of dyslexia, but also to successfully remediate dyslexia. The results argue that a shift from phonologically-based to visually-based methods is indicated for the treatment of dyslexia. The phonological theory is set at too high a cognitive level to explain the cause of reading deficits [20] . Moreover, phonological deficits only Lawton T (2019) Increasing visual timing by movement discrimination exercises improves reading fluency, attention span, and memory retention in dyslexics Visual stress in adults with and without dyslexia. J Res Read 28: 365-378. 27. Harries P, Hall R, Ray N, Griffiths PG, Stein J (2015) Using coloured filters to reduce the symptoms of visual stress in children with reading delay.