Battery ageing is one of the critical problems to be tackled in battery research, as it limits the power and energy capacity during the battery's life. Therefore, optimizing the design of battery systems requires a good understanding of ageing behaviour. Due to their simplicity, empirical and semi-empirical models are frequently used in smart charging studies, feasibility studies, cost analyses studies, among other uses. Unfortunately, these models are prone to significant estimation errors

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... out appropriate knowledge of their inherent limitations and the interdependency between stress factors. This paper presents a review of empirical and semi-empirical modelling techniques and ageing studies, focusing on the trends observed between different studies and highlighting the limitations and challenges of the various models. First, we summarize the main ageing mechanisms in lithium-ion batteries. Next, empirical modelling techniques are reviewed, followed by the current challenges and future trends, and conclusion. Our results indicate that the effect of stress factors are easily oversimplified, and their correlations often not taken into account. The provided knowledge in this paper can be used to evaluate the limitations of ageing models and improve their accuracy for various applications.