Why do some areas in the US have higher racial disparities than others? While a substantial body of research examines the role of racial or ethnic minority (descriptive) representatives in providing pro-minority public policy (substantive representation), there is little consensus over the aggregate impact of descriptive representation on the outcomes racial minorities experience and the factors determining the size of that impact. In this book, I propose and test different theories which

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... trate the conditional link between descriptive and substantive representation. In Chapter 2, I test a theory of multi-level political incorporation, arguing that descriptive representatives need the right political conditions to provide substantive representation. In Chapter 3, I argue that descriptive representatives need members in leadership positions to gain agenda access to provide substantive representation. In both these chapters, I examine a new dataset of over 7,000 representatives in state and local level legislatures and examine disparities in poverty rates and residential segregation. I find strong evidence to support my theory of multi-level political incorporation and mixed evidence in support of my leadership theory. In Chapter 4, I examine the role of the race and gender of representatives intersectionally. I argue that the Black male and Black female representatives will differ because of the stereotypes surrounding them. I test this theory using a new dataset covering 500 District Attorneys and find compelling evidence that Black male and Black female representatives lead to different levels of racial disparities in criminal justice outcomes.