At the outset of an international large-scale assessment study, researchers typically develop an assessment framework that defines the outcomes (content, skills, and understandings) that are to be assessed in the study and provide a contextual framework that outlines the scope of contexts believed to be associated with those outcomes. A particular challenge is to establish frameworks for cross-national studies that are valid across a wide range of participating education systems. Some studies

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... ve assessment frameworks that reference established curriculum areas. Other studies have assessment frameworks that define outcomes related to learning areas of a cross-curricular nature. A third set of studies have assessment frameworks that put a greater emphasis on what people need to know to successfully participate in society rather than on what is taught in schools. Contextual frameworks, typically embedded in a broader assessment framework, focus on those characteristics that are believed to influence student learning either as teaching and learning processes or as the conditions provided for teaching and learning. Some large-scale international surveys have been entirely concerned with contexts and are based on frameworks that are primarily concerned with contexts. Framework development involves detailed definitions of the outcomes to be investigated in terms of content, cognitive processes, and affective dispositions, as well as the types of items to be used and aspects of assessment design. Frameworks are informed by existing research literature and available information about national and school curricula. The development process is informed by expert advisory groups and country representatives through a series of review cycles. Research questions that guide the study are formulated as part of these frameworks.