The coastal environments of South Africa's Cape Floristic Region (CFR) provide some of the earliest and most abundant evidence for the emergence of cognitively modern humans. In particular, the south coast of the CFR provided a uniquely diverse resource base for hunter-gatherers, which included marine shellfish, game, and carbohydrate-bearing plants, especially those with underground storage organs (USOs). It has been hypothesized that these resources underpinned the continuity of human

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... on in the region since the Middle Pleistocene. Very little research has been conducted on the foraging potential of carbohydrate resources in the CFR. This study focuses on the seasonal availability of plants with edible carbohydrate at six-weekly intervals over a two-year period in four vegetation types on South Africa's Cape south coast. Different plant species were considered available to foragers if the edible carbohydrate was directly (i.e. above-ground edible portions) or indirectly (above-ground indications to below-ground edible portions) visible to an expert botanist familiar with this landscape. A total of 52 edible plant species were recorded across all vegetation types. Of these, 33 species were geophytes with edible USOs and 21 species had aboveground edible carbohydrates. Limestone Fynbos had the richest flora, followed by Strandveld, Renosterveld and lastly, Sand Fynbos. The availability of plant species differed across vegetation types and between survey years. The number of available USO species was highest for a six-month period from winter to early summer (Jul-Dec) across all vegetation types. Months of lowest species' availability were in mid-summer to early autumn (Jan-Apr); the early winter (May-Jun) values were variable, being highest in Limestone Fynbos. However, even during the late summer carbohydrate "crunch", 25 carbohydrate bearing species were visible across the four vegetation types. To establish a robust resource landscape will require additional spatial mapping of plant species abundances. Nonetheless, our results demonstrate that plantbased carbohydrate resources available to Stone Age foragers of the Cape south coast, especially USOs belonging to the Iridaceae family, are likely to have comprised a reliable and nutritious source of calories over most of the year. PeerJ reviewing PDF | (Abstract 32 33 The coastal environments of South Africa's Cape Floristic Region (CFR) provide some of the 34 earliest and most abundant evidence for the emergence of cognitively modern humans. In 35 particular, the south coast of the CFR provided a uniquely diverse resource base for hunter-36 gatherers, which included marine shellfish, game, and carbohydrate-bearing plants, especially 37 those with underground storage organs (USOs). It has been hypothesized that these resources 38 underpinned the continuity of human occupation in the region since the Middle Pleistocene. Very 39 little research has been conducted on the foraging potential of carbohydrate resources in the 40 CFR. This study focuses on the seasonal availability of plants with edible carbohydrate at six-41 weekly intervals over a two-year period in four vegetation types on South Africa's Cape south 42 coast. Different plant species were considered available to foragers if the edible carbohydrate 43 was directly (i.e. above-ground edible portions) or indirectly (above-ground indications to 44 below-ground edible portions) visible to an expert botanist familiar with this landscape. A total 45 of 52 edible plant species were recorded across all vegetation types. Of these, 33 species were 46 geophytes with edible USOs and 21 species had aboveground edible carbohydrates. Limestone 47 Fynbos had the richest flora, followed by Strandveld, Renosterveld and lastly, Sand Fynbos. The 48 availability of plant species differed across vegetation types and between survey years. The 49 number of available USO species was highest for a six-month period from winter to early 50 summer (Jul-Dec) across all vegetation types. Months of lowest species' availability were in 51 mid-summer to early autumn (Jan-Apr); the early winter (May-Jun) values were variable, being 52 highest in Limestone Fynbos. However, even during the late summer carbohydrate "crunch", 25 53 carbohydrate bearing species were visible across the four vegetation types. To establish a robust 54 resource landscape will require additional spatial mapping of plant species abundances. 55 Nonetheless, our results demonstrate that plant-based carbohydrate resources available to Stone 56 Age foragers of the Cape south coast, especially USOs belonging to the Iridaceae family, are 57 likely to have comprised a reliable and nutritious source of calories over most of the year. 58 59 60 PeerJ reviewing PDF | (